The present invention relates generally to the measurement of complete profiles of one-dimensionally and two-dimensionally repeating, regularly-spaced series of structures through the use of an algorithm for caching of intermediate results, and the use of cached intermediate results to increase the efficiency of calculations. The present invention also relates to coupled wave analyses of diffracted electromagnetic signals from periodic gratings, particularly where the diffracted electromagnetic signals are monitored by optical metrology tools, such as reflectometer and ellipsometers. More particularly, the present invention relates to apparatus and methods for measurement of complete profiles of one-dimensionally and two-dimensionally repeating, regularly-spaced series of structures and to reducing the computation time of coupled wave analyses of diffraction from periodic gratings, and still more particularly the present invention relates to apparatus and methods for caching and retrieval of intermediate computations to reduce the computation time of coupled wave analyses of diffraction from periodic gratings.
Diffraction gratings have been used in spectroscopic applications, i.e., diffraction applications utilizing multiple wavelengths, such as optical instruments, space optics, synchrotron radiation, in the wavelength range from visible to x-rays. Furthermore, the past decades have seen the use of diffraction gratings in a wide variety of nonspectroscopic applications, such as wavelength selectors for tunable lasers, beam-sampling elements, and dispersive instruments for multiplexers.
Advances in computing power are the result of increased speed of semiconductor devices. This has been achieved by continually reducing the transistor linewidths, i.e., the dimensions of transistors. However, as the scale of semiconductor devices decreases, control of the complete profile of the features, rather than the linewidth alone, is crucial for effective chip operation. When the sidewalls are perfectly vertical, knowledge of linewidth (and height) is enough to reconstruct the entire line, i.e., two parameters define the structure. However, due to limits in current fabrication technologies, vertical sidewalls are difficult, if not impossible, to achieve, and sloping sidewalls are common. In addition to the slope of a sidewall, other features that are artifacts of the technology which may be present in lines include T-topping (the formation of a “T” shaped profile) and footing (the formation of an inverse “T” shaped profile). Capturing such details about the profile is important in achieving a better understanding the fabrication technologies. In addition to measuring such features, controlling them is also important in this highly competitive marketplace. There are thus increasing efforts to develop and refine run-to-run and real-time fabrication control schemes that attempt to make profile measurements in-line or in-situ, and use this information to reduce process variability.
The use of reflectance metrology for the measurement of the thickness of films is well-known. In reflectance metrology, an unpolarized or polarized beam of broadband light is directed towards a sample, and the reflected light is collected. The reflectance can either be measured as absolute value, or relative value when normalized to some reflectance standards. The reflectance signal is then analyzed to determine the thicknesses and optical constants of the film or films. There are numerous examples of reflectance metrology. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,835,225 given to Thakur et.al. teaches the use of reflectance metrology to monitor the thickness and refractive indices of a film.
The use of ellipsometry for the measurement of the thickness of films is also well-known (see, for instance, R. M. A. Azzam and N. M. Bashara, “Ellipsometry and Polarized Light”, North Holland, 1987). When ordinary, i.e., non-polarized, white light is sent through a polarizer, it emerges as linearly polarized light with its electric field vector aligned with an axis of the polarizer. Linearly polarized light can be defined by two vectors, i.e., the vectors parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Ellipsometry is based on the change in polarization that occurs when a beam of polarized light is reflected from a medium. The change in polarization consists of two parts: a phase change and an amplitude change. The change in polarization is different for the portion of the incident radiation with the electric vector oscillating in the plane of incidence, and the portion of the incident radiation with the electric vector oscillating perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Ellipsometry measures the results of these two changes which are conveniently represented by an angle Δ, which is the change in phase of the reflected beam ρ from the incident beam; and an angle Ψ, which is defined as the arctangent of the amplitude ratio of the incident and reflected beam, i.e.,       ρ    =                            r          p                          r          s                    =                        tan          ⁢                      (            Ψ            )                          ⁢                  ⅇ                      j            ⁢                          (              Δ              )                                            ,where rp is the p-component of the reflectance, and rs is the s-component of the reflectance. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal, but opposite in sign, to each other and may be chosen for convenience. Since the reflected beam is fixed in position relative to the incident beam, ellipsometry is an attractive technique for in-situ control of processes which take place in a chamber.
There are numerous examples of the use of spectroscopic ellipsometry. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,131,752 by Yu et.al. teaches the use of ellipsometry to monitor the thickness of a film as it is deposited on a workpiece. The method is however limited to planar surfaces. U.S. Pat. No. 5,739,909 by Blayo et.al. teaches a method for using spectroscopic ellipsometry to measure linewidths by directing an incident beam 131 of polarized light at a periodic structure 100, which has a pitch comprising a feature 121 and a space, as is depicted in FIG. 1. A diffracted beam 132, which leaves the periodic structure at an angle θ which is equal, but opposite in sign, to the angle θ the incident beam makes with the periodic structure, is detected and its intensity and polarization are determined at one or more wavelengths. This is then compared with either pre-computed libraries of signals or to experimental data, to extract linewidth information. While this is a non-destructive test, it does not provide profile information, but yields only a single number to characterize the quality of the process. Another method for characterizing features of a patterned material is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,800 by D. H. Ziger. According to this method, the intensity, but not the phase, of zeroth-order diffraction is monitored for a number of wavelengths, and correlated with features of the patterned material.
While numerous non-destructive techniques have been suggested for linewidth measurements, such as the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical microscope, none of them have the ability to provide complete profile information. There exist cross-sectional profile metrology tools, such as the atomic force microscope (AFM) and the transmission electron microscope, that provide profile information, but at the cost of being either prohibitively slow or destructive. Further disadvantages include that these techniques cannot be implemented in-line or in-situ. Finally, there exists scatterometry techniques, such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,867,276 by McNeil et.al. which teaches a method for measuring profile information. This is accomplished by directing multiple wavelength, polarized light onto a periodic structure at a single angle of incidence, and collecting the diffracted intensity signal. It is important to note that the incident beam is of a single planar polarization. This diffracted signal is then compared to a pre-compiled library of signals to extract profiles of features. The library is either pre-computed based on theoretical calculations or is based purely on experimental signals. This method uses only the intensity of the optical signal and has been shown to suffer from non-uniqueness, i.e., there exist scenarios where two completely different profiles yield the same intensity signal, even across a broad range of wavelengths (see, for example, S. Bushman, S. Farrer, “Scatterometry Measurements for Process Monitoring of Gate Etch”, AEC/APC Workshop IX, Sematech, Sep. 20-24 1997). This non-uniqueness reduces robustness and accuracy of the results.
The ability to determine the diffraction characteristics of periodic gratings with high precision is useful for the refinement of existing applications. Furthermore, the accurate determination of the diffraction characteristics of periodic gratings is useful in extending the applications to which diffraction gratings may be applied. However, it is well known that modeling of the diffraction of electromagnetic radiation from periodic structures is a complex problem that requires sophisticated techniques. Closed analytic solutions are restricted to geometries which are so simple that they are of little interest, and current numerical techniques generally require a prohibitive amount of computation time.
The general problem of the mathematical analysis of electromagnetic diffraction from periodic gratings has been addressed using a variety of different types of analysis, and several rigorous theories have been developed in the past decades. Methods using integral formulations of Maxwell's equations were used to obtain numerical results by A. R. Neureuther and K. Zaki (“Numerical methods for the analysis of scattering from nonplanar periodic structures,” Intn'l URSI Symposium on Electromagnetic Waves, Stresa, Italy, 282-285, 1969) and D. Maystre (“A new general integral theory for dielectric coated gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 68, no. 4, 490-495, April 1978). Methods using differential formulations of Maxwell's equations have also been developed by a number of different groups. For instance, an iterative differential formulation has been developed by M. Neviere, P. Vincent, R. Petit and M. Cadilhac (“Systematic study of resonances of holographic thin film couplers,” Optics Communications, vol. 9, no. 1, 48-53, September 1973), and the rigorous coupled-wave analysis method has been developed by M. G. Moharam and T. K. Gaylord (“Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis of Planar-Grating Diffraction,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 71, 811-818, July 1981). Further work in RCWA formulations has been done by E. B. Grann and D. A. Pommet (“Formulation for Stable and Efficient Implementation of the Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis of Binary Gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, vol. 12, 1068-1076, May 1995), and E. B. Grann and D. A. Pommet (“Stable Implementation of the Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis for Surface-Relief Dielectric Gratings: Enhanced Transmittance Matrix Approach”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, vol. 12, 1077-1086, May 1995).
Conceptually, an RCWA computation consists of four steps:                The grating is divided into a number of thin, planar layers, and the section of the ridge within each layer is approximated by a rectangular slab.        Within the grating, Fourier expansions of the electric field, magnetic field, and permittivity leads to a system of differential equations for each layer and each harmonic order.        Boundary conditions are applied for the electric and magnetic fields at the layer boundaries to provide a system of equations.        Solution of the system of equations provides the diffracted reflectivity from the grating for each harmonic order.The accuracy of the computation and the time required for the computation depend on the number of layers into which the grating is divided and the number of orders used in the Fourier expansion.        
A number of variations of the mathematical formulation of RCWA have been proposed. For instance, variations of RCWA proposed by P. Lalanne and G. M. Morris (“Highly Improved Convergence of the Coupled-Wave Method for TM Polarization,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 779-784, 1996), L. Li and C. Haggans (“Convergence of the coupled-wave method for metallic lamellar diffraction gratings”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 1184-1189, June, 1993), and G. Granet and B. Guizal (“Efficient Implementation of the Coupled-Wave Method for Metallic Lamellar Gratings in TM Polarization”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, 1019-1023, May, 1996) differ as whether the Fourier expansions are taken of the permittivity or the reciprocal of the permittivity. (According to the lexography of the present specification, all of these variations are considered to be “RCWA.”) For a specific grating structure, there can be substantial differences in the numerical convergence of the different formulations due to differences in the singularity of the matrices involved in the calculations, particularly for TM-polarized and conically-polarized incident radiation. Therefore, for computational efficiency it is best to select amongst the different formulations.
Frequently, the profiles of a large number of periodic gratings must be determined. For instance, in determining the ridge profile which produced a measured diffraction spectrum in a scatterometry application, thousands or even millions of profiles must be generated, the diffraction spectra of the profiles are calculated, and the calculated diffraction spectra are compared with the measured diffraction spectrum to find the calculated diffraction spectrum which most closely matches the measured diffraction spectrum. Further examples of scatterometry applications which require the analysis of large numbers of periodic gratings include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,164,790, 5,867,276 and 5,963,329, and “Specular Spectroscopic Scatterometry in DUV lithography,” X. Niu, N. Jakatdar, J. Bao and C. J. Spanos, SPIE, vol. 3677, pp. 159-168, from thousands to millions of diffraction profiles must be analyzed. However, using an accurate method such as RCWA, the computation time can be prohibitively long. Thus, there is a need for methods and apparatus for rapid and accurate analysis of diffraction data to determine the profiles of periodic gratings.
Additional objects and advantages of the present application will become apparent upon review of the Figures, Detailed Description of the Present Invention, and appended claims.